PART II : ENGLISH IN HAIKU
§I Article
An Article employed in haiku develops its characteristic of description and is the more demonstrative.
A) a(n)-form
A(n)-form which is used in haiku is classified into three in the meaning of haiku.
1) (a) The sunset fading,
I turn around toward home ...
a* huge, saffron moon!
(b) The harvest over -
against the weathered rail-fence,
a* tumbled scarecrow.
2) Like a* giant cat
rain licked away the hopscotch
chalked in the bright sun.
3) (a) Wren on a* low bush;
hardly a* handful of fluff ...
acres of song.
(b) A* single cricket
warms the quiet of this
lonely mountain night.
1)(a) 'A' is emotional or discovering 'a'.
The 'a' capped on 'moon' describes the moon which inspired the poet and which, by his transportation, is now a particular state - huge, saffron. We usually use this 'a' as following.
What a sky! ( What a beautiful sky! or What a terrible sky!)
What a sea!
1)(b) A scarecrow means, of course, one scarecrow. The poet discovered the scarecrow which is tumbled against the rail-fence and shows it to a
reader for the firs time. But this 'a' is not so-called introductory 'a'. The poet shows it demonstrativiely with a soft shout.
(2) At a glance 'A giant cat' seems the 'giant cat' which is general idea or generic cat, but this 'a' is the same of the followinig sentence.
"They (alot of genies) are as tall as a tree and as big
around as a church."
This is Tom Sawyer's explanation of genies which are believed to appear
out of an iron ring or tin lamp rubbed by someone. He never states a generic tree or church, but he says a certain tree or church which is remembered as particular things or as his experience.
3) 'A' is pictorial and demonstrative. By the 'a' s' used in these cases we can clearly visualize vast low bushes or a small lively wren like a fluff itself, or a cricket which is quietly chirping in its whole body. In the case 3) (a) an Article which should be capped on 'wren' is omitted to apply to the 5-7-5 form.
When Noun which is only general idea is capped 'a' , it is limited and condensed like a speck, and its image is impressive.
B) the-form
The-form characterized in haiku in English are classified into four.
1) 'the' as the basis of context
1)(a) introductory 'the'
Dusk unwinds the* skein -
slowly a circle of swifts
drawn into chimney.
Nowadays this 'the' is often used in the opening patagraph of
short stories, etc, and gives tention to a reader.
High above the* city, on a tall column, stood the* statue
of the Happy Prince.
1)(b) implicit contexual basis 'the'
Life in a rock pool
undisturbed
As the wind ripples the* surface.
In this case 'the ' renders a reader to imagine the state of rock pool, and the reader could experience the poet positoin,
1)(c) situational basis 'the'
Higher and higher,
cawing and flapping, the* crow
is climbing the wind.
'The ' in this poem is closer to the case that we say " the ticket collection" in a train. In this poem a reader must stand on the same point of view of the poet who is looking at the crow. a reader enters
the poet's mind without selfishness.
2) Generic 'the'
Loneliness: for the*
child, an opportunity
to play Let's Pretend.
'The' in this poem is used in such a state of mind in 'Auguties of Innocence' by William Blake.
To see a World in Grain of Sand,
And a heaven in a Wild Flower,
Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand
And Eternity in an hour.
But in haiku the child is the child; a wild folower is a wild flower. 'The child' who is now being seen by the poet might be felt with deeper feelings in reader's side beyond the word 'the child'. This 'the' is not directly means generic thing, but the poet sees the universal child in the child who is to be seen by the poet.
3) 'the' which means 'this'
Empty the* night seems,
and yet endless filight of birds
caligraph the moon.
'The ' in this poem means 'this'.This 'the' is rather delicate and objective than 'this'. This 'the' is ussed in Scotland or Ireland in the words ' the day (today)' , 'the morn (this or that morning)'.
You're looking a bit tired the* night.
In Standard English they say ' I am occupied for the* moment.'
4) 'the' followed by pural common Noun
The first little snow
an evening of light edges
the roses dropped their leaves.
'The' indicates all things capped it, that is all roses. The poet watches every rose with so much care and love, so all the roses are emphasized with the same value.
'The' employed in haiku in English shows the understanding basis with a reader, and familiarizes 'thing for a reader.
The usage of Article in haiku proves that poets treat things intuitively.
§II Punctuation
Punctuation marks are usefully employed just like the proper use of kanasymbols and characters in Japanese poetry. This mark stops the continuing expression, and makes a dale in the poem. The image and meaning which is finished by a punctuation mark matches each other, and the whole image of the poem is built just like building blocks or Japanese shrine buildings.
Sword of the iris:
all so alike, yet some bend,
talling the others.
(Notice two commas in the second line.)
These commas effectively express the sharp leaves of the iris which are talling in some and which are bending in the others.
Portaging canoe
to the edge oof the River -
the Light, the Light...
(Notice the dash in the second line and the row of dots in the third.)
The row of dots which shows anticlimax suggests one light and another light which sticks into waters. And the dash in the second line matches its lineand the third with a flat level not with super-pository technique.
In the crystal air,
after every gust of wind -
an autumn carnival !
(Notice the exclamation mark in the third line.)
The reveberation of the autumn carnival which is carried in the gust stirrs the poet. This feeling of the poet is strengthened by the use of the exclamation mark without any other words. If a hawk is a hawk, this way of expression could keep the feeling of carnival pure.
We finish the wine;
the last fire fly goes way
to become a star.
(Notice the semi-colon in the first line.)
About the ploblem of semi-colon and colon, see §V 'Cutting Words'.
English haiku is not always written using Punctuation marks, but haiku written with Punctuation marks must be experienced, not be interpretated just as we appreciate Japanese shrines.
§III Ing-form
I can see the farm yet, with perfect clearness; I can see all its belongings, all its details; the family room of the house, the vast fireplace, piled high on the winter nights with flaming* logs; the lazy cat spread out in front of it; the sleepy dogs ; my aunt in one chimney corner, knitting*; my uncle in the other, smoking* his pipe; the shiny and carpetless floor faintly mirroing* the dancing * flames; half a dozen children playing* in the background.
― The Autobiography of Mark Twain
Ing-form is frequently employed in haiku in English.
1) -ing -form which is used attributively
In this silent snow,
each crutching* step echoed dryly
into my teeth.
'Crutching' qualifies a step of the poet and gives a reader clear image of step to its sound.
2)-ing-form which is used in Progressive form
a) On the jack-oak trees
shiny buds are pushing* off
last brown, withered leaves.
b) Chimney smoke and rain 5 syllables
weaving* macabre figures 7 syllbles
on the wet rooftops. 5 syllables
In the case 'pushing' describes lives of buds vividly with the poet's imgination. But in the case (b) 'to be' is omitted to be applied to a 5-7-5 syllable count. This, nevertheless, lets a reader conceive a dance of death of smoke and rain. This figure which is indeed macabre and lovely is cried out just as exclamatory sentence as the whole poem. 'Weaving' is drawn near to the following case 3)(a).
3)a) Invigorating *!
the blast of winter-crisp air.
as the door opens.
b)Portaging* canoe
to the edges of the River -
the Light, the Light...
'Invigorating' is the uttarance of actual feeling for the winter air.The poet expresses his feelings by 'to invigorate' without any other words because a invigotating wind is a invigorating wind. This expression is like the case of 'What a sea ! '. In case (b) 'portaging' is the same usage of the '-ing' in the word, 'sleeping* cat' or 'laughing* stock'.
b) Snowy shoulders shrink --
dark water flows, sparkling cold
between silent bank.
c) The tiny goldfish,
though cruising* with the others,
stay out of their way.
These '-ing's are used as Participle construction. This constructioon can describes thigs graphically, but it sometimes makes a poem obscure. Its proper use in haiku render a poem have a trailing note. The case 3)8a9 'going' is different from this construction . But it seems that it is between Predicative partici;le and the particile which is used in Participle construction.Shadows are given their lives; Shadows are foing home, and father and son are going home. In the case 3)(c) notice the place where '-ing-form' is put. This occurred for the reason that the poet lays the block of image one above another, letting the former image echo.
4)The water flowing*
a white butterfly passes
not hearing* a sound.
This poem is properly employed the rhythm of '-ing'. And we see and hear this poem: A butterfly is flapping with light wings and atream is chuckling. This would be realized if we read the poem 'The Cataract of Lodore' by R. Southey which is awufully use '-ing-form' to describe the falling water.
Ing-form is employed beyound Tense. it is the chief matter for haiku to state poet's states of mind which are happening now. So poets are more concerned with Mood or Aspect which relate with Tense. Haiku poets see deeply the aspects of verbs or seek tor the proper Mood, and then Tense is considered. But they use Present Tense to express their feeling intuitib\vely in many case.
These characteristics of expressions of haiku in English develop owing to the shortness and other elements of haiku. And again for the proper use of supple language. It seems to us that English-speaking poets reach the spirit of haiku through the pattern of haiku.
CONCLUSION
Haiku in English is still in its infancy, but it gives us some idea of 'Whati is English haiku for English -speaking poeple?' They eagerly want to express their feelings and their individualities. and they borrow Japanese haiku form. They express their native land and every day lives as universal feelings. They are now intimately bending down to nature, and stare nature. there is a budding thought that rain and smoke is mingling in one. this is very like Oriental thought. They are seeking their Great Tradition. They all harmonize with the same level. The individuality of each one is respected with the same value. Because in haiku everything, man and sun, or snow and heath, has the same value. And here the intelligence of the West and the emotion of the East is uniting. Once they were tightly united in ancient Greek. the time is come again when nature and man blend in single state. And their single, pure eyes see their lives in nature or they awaken to their lives. It seems to be said that Renaissance of life is arising in the denouement of this century when the earth is wheeling in united one.
But I wonder 'whati is this study for me?' I think mow vaguely in obscure mind that it may be to ask 'What is one?'
"Neither do men put new wine into old wine-skins: else the skins burst, and the wine is spilled, and the skins perish: but they put new wine into fresh wine-skins, and both are preserved."
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Harold G. Hederson: Haiku in English (Japan Scociety, New York, 1965)
Harold G. Henderson: An Introduction to Haiku (A Doubleday Anchor Books, 1958)
Earl Miner: The Japanese Tradition in British and American Literature
(Princeton University Press, 1958)
Christmas Humphreys: Buddihism (Penguin Books, 1962)
Curme: Syntax (pp.5-12. pp354-454) (Maruzen Company Ltd.)
Masako Isshiki: Article (English grammar series 9 Kenkyusha)
Torajiro Fukumura: Tense and Voice (English grammar series 11 Kenkyusha)
Ryoichi Inui: Participle, Gerund (English grammar series 15 Kenkyusha)